Harmonization of Accounting Standards - 4616 Words

Abstract Discussion on harmonization is started quite long time ago. Its impact on the countries economy is good or bad is the central idea of this essay. This essay is written specifically on the accounting standard used in Australia. This essay starts with introduction on various topics such as conceptual framework, IASB, Sacs then it discussed the issue of harmonization. Harmonization will have positive impact on the economy because it attracts overseas investors to invest in Australia. This essay covers difference between conceptual framework developed in Australia and IASB framework. There are given lot of difference such as treatment of non for profit entity is same as the public entity in A-IFRS. Reporting entity concepts and†¦show more content†¦R., and S. Jones, 2002 Conceptual framework is like a constitution for standard setting process. It is the concepts to define nature, subject, and purpose, of the financial report. it has many advantages to have a conceptual framework for than company for example when there is a conceptual framework implemented in the country then all business bodies follows that framework and so there is better communication between different business entities. Otherwise it is not possible if there is no conceptual framework in the country. The AARF (Australian accounting research foundation) has discussed many different benefits of having conceptual framework as follows all financial reports will be in consistent with others. Setting conceptual framework is also economical for the country. More advantages are given below: †¢ Those who made the framework are now more responsible and accountable for their actions .entities are now more accountable if they do not proved any disclosure or giving false information. CF provides a means of communicating key concepts to financial report to preparers and users, as well as providing guidance to reporting entities when no specific standards address a particular issue. †¢ Financial reports made by the help of conceptual framework are consistent and more in logical manner so that there is more understandability in the financial reports. †¢ Because standard-setters will have harmony on many important issues, theShow MoreRelatedAccounting Theory -Harmonization of Standards2779 Words   |  12 PagesHarmonization of International Accounting Standards Contents A. Introduction Objective.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.3 B. Why Harmonization of international accounting standards required†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..4 C. Factors influencing any Country’s Accounting Standards†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..6 D. Role of International Accounting Standard Board (IASB)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..8 E. Moving towards Harmonized International Accounting Standard†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 F. Obstacles and Benefits of the harmonization of InternationalRead MoreHarmonization of Accounting Standards Through Internationalization5845 Words   |  24 PagesVol. 2, No. 2 International Business Research Harmonization of Accounting Standards through Internationalization Nikhil Chandra Shil, ACMA (Corresponding Author) Department of Business Administration East West University 43, Mohakhali C/A, Dhaka – 1212, Bangladesh Tel: 9887989(Off.) ext 253, 01819289589 (M) Dr. Bhagaban Das P.G. Department of Business Management, Fakir Mohan University P. O.: Balasore, Pin.: 756019, Orissa, India E-mail: bhagaban_fm@yahoo.com Alok Kumar Pramanik DepartmentRead MoreHarmonization of International Accounting Standards: Advantages Disadvantages, Obstacles Solutions3944 Words   |  16 Pages Harmonization of International Accounting Standards: Advantages Disadvantages, Obstacles Solutions   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As the trend for globalization in business becomes increasingly important for economic success, many issues arise through international business practices for corporations, governments, and investors.   Due to the many conflicting codes and practices that exist between various national financial accounting standards throughout the world, international business becomes harder to analyzeRead MoreExamine the Advantages and Disadvantages for China of Harmonization of Accounting Standards Under the Current Economic and Social System1762 Words   |  8 Pagesdisadvantages for China of harmonization of accounting standards under the current economic and social system. With the development of economic globalization and capital markets, accounting standards based on a national system cannot satisfy the needs of users whose decisions are increasingly international. Therefore harmonization of accounting standards has become an inevitable choice for many countries. The Chinese government has introduced four sets of accounting standards and efforts continue toRead MoreAdvantages and barriers of harmonizing International Financial Reporting Standards throughout the world1065 Words   |  5 Pagesinternational trade and capital flows that has occurred over the previous two decades has increased the desire to harmonise accounting standards across the globe. The appeal of international accounting harmonization has been extensively discussed. Numerous academics Ali, J M (2005), Adhikari and Tondkar (1992), Saudagaran (1997) argue that adopting International Financial Reporing Standards (IFRS) would bring great benefits to society, such as comparability of statements between countries, progression andRead MoreThe Importance Of Accounting Standards For Business Affairs1049 Words   |  5 Pagesthat’s understandable globally and comparable across the international boundaries. IFRS initially was formed to harmonize accounting across European Union, but the value of harmonization was so overwhelming and attractive around the world that became a benchmark globally. Importance of Accounting Standards In this assignment I want to explain the importance of the Accounting standards. As the world economy is becoming integrated and globalization is becoming a universal phenomenon, more and more businessesRead MoreMgt4045967 Words   |  4 PagesWRITE-UP DUE: Thursday, 10/28/10 1. Explain the rationale for the global harmonization of financial reporting and disclosure requirements. -Make the financial statement more comparable across the global market so investors can invest their capital in more efficient comparable. 2. Identify two groups that are exerting pressure for pursuing global harmonization. How do these two groups stand to benefit from harmonization? -Investors are concerned with the reliability and comparability ofRead MoreDifferences Between Gaap And Ifrs1442 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction There are two distinct methods of accounting for finances in the business world. These two methods are the methods both prescribed by the U.S., which is known as the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), and that which is used by the international community known as international financial reporting standards (IFRS). GAAP is regulated by the financial accounting standards board (FASB) while IFRS is regulated by the international accounting standards board (IASB). These two methods areRead MoreUniversal Accounting Standards954 Words   |  4 PagesUniversal Accounting Standards Issue The internationalization of business activities has increased exponentially over the past 3 decades. Because the accounting standards and practices of different countries have developed in response to diverse environments, accounting has developed with strong national accents . As a result, multinationals with branches and investments in a wide array of countries find it difficult to achieve a consolidated financial report. Further, investors in these multinationalsRead MoreRomania’s Post Communism Accounting Practices and the Effects of Adapting Ifrs for Smes1725 Words   |  7 PagesPost Communism Accounting Practices and The Effects of Adapting IFRS for SMEs â€Æ' Abstract Romania, located in southeastern European, was heavily influenced by the Russian Soviet Union as a socialist republic between 1947 and 1989. With becoming a capitalist country in 1989, its accounting practices began its transformation. The purpose of this paper is to analyze Romania accounting practices post its revolution. The paper discusses three major accounting practice conversions

Essay on Francis Bacons New Atlantis - 1512 Words

Francis Bacons New Atlantis Francis Bacon was the founder of the modern scientific method. The focus on the new scientific method is on orderly experimentation. For Bacon, experiments that produce results are important. Bacon pointed out the need for clear and accurate thinking, showing that any mastery of the world in which man lives was dependent upon careful understanding. This understanding is based solely on the facts of this world and not as the ancients held it in ancient philosophy. This new modern science provides the foundation for modern political science. Bacons political science completely separated religion and philosophy. For Bacon, nothing exists in the universe except individual bodies. Although he did not offer a†¦show more content†¦Science conquers chance and determines change thus creating a regime permanently pleasant. Bensalem, meaning perfect son in Hebrew, has shunned the misfortunes of time, vice and decay. Bensalem seems to combine the blessedness of Jerusalem and the pleasures and conveniences of Babylon. In Bacons NEW ATLANTIS, the need for man to be driven does not exist. Scarcity is eliminated thereby eliminating the need for money. But thus, you see, we maintain a trade, not for gold, silver or jewels... nor for any other commodity of matter, but only for Gods first creature which was light (Bacon, 437). This shows a devotion to truth rather than victory and it emphasizes the Christian piety to which the scientist is disposed by virtue of his science. As man observes and brings the fruits of his observations together, he discover likeness and differences among events and objects in the universe. In this way he will establish laws among happenings upon which he can base all subsequent action. Bacon realized that sometimes religious ideas and the discoveries of nature and careful observations were contradictory but he argued that society must believe both. The NEW ATLANTIS begins with the description of a ship lost at sea. The crew lift up their hearts and voices to God above, who showeth his wonders in the deep, beseeching him of his mercy (Bacon, 419). Upon spotting land and discerning natives the sailors praise God. When a boarding party comes to theirShow MoreRelated Francis Bacons Scientifically Revolutionary Utopia Essay1077 Words   |  5 Pages Francis Bacon’s Scientifically Revolutionary Utopia nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The New Atlantis is a seventeenth century depiction of a utopia by Francis Bacon. In this novel, Francis Bacon continues on More’s utopian ideas. Unlike More, however, Bacon relied on societal change via advancements in science and ones own awareness of his environment rather than through religious reforms or social legislation. The seventeenth century marks a period in history where drastic social change occurredRead MoreThemes Of Utopian Literature2013 Words   |  9 PagesThe 16th century stands for a new time in exploration of all the fundamental beliefs that were at the heart of people’s mind. The Renaissance made the world wonder about new sciences, aesthetics, and religious beliefs. In the literature, too, was a heavy discussion about the ideas that the world should push for and the ideas the world should leave behind. Utopian literature stands at the center of that debate, the envisioning of a perfect world in a distant far away country was something that manyRead MoreFrancis Bacon Essay example1282 Words   |  6 PagesFrancis Bacon grew from poverty to expand his career as a British politician entrepreneur and wrote prominent essays on humanism and innovative scientific philosophy. Most notably known as â€Å"the father of the English essay,† (McDougal 455) Bacon’s influential works were vastly impacted by the tenets of the Renaissance period. Even Thomas Jefferson, one of the founding fathers of our nation, credited being influenced by Bacon’s essays (McDougal 455). One of the core ideologies determined by his worksRead MoreFrancis Bacon As A Successful Politician891 Words   |  4 PagesFrancis Bacon is widely regarded as the â€Å"Father of Modern Science† due to his contributions in science and discovery of the Scientific Method. Sir Francis Bacon was born to Nicholas and Anne Cooke Bacon on January 22, 1561, in London, England (â€Å"Bacon, Francis (1561-1626).† The New Book of Popular 1). He had no siblings, and his father Nicholas Bacon died at a young age (â€Å"Bacon, Francis (1561-1626).† The New Book of Knowledge 2). He was looking for work to help his mother, and without a father, itRead MoreWilliam Bacon s New Science1795 Words   |  8 Pagesargued that since God on the first day â€Å"created light only,† philosophers should set about discovering true causes and axioms.14 Thus, Bacon’s new science was meant for the benefit of the people and the improvement of human health and welfare. Bacon urged his followers to â€Å"cultivate truth in charity.†15 These religious ideas come together in Bacon’s New Atlantis, in which the fathers of Solomon’s House, the scientific center of the island named after the biblical king, were responsible for distributingRead MoreEssay on Revolution in Scientific Affairs977 Words   |  4 Pagesto influence ideas about such wildly disparate fields of human endeavor as physics, religion, and governmental theory, shows that Francis Bacon played a major role in encouraging the growth of the Scientific Revolution. Writing in the early part of the 17th century, Bacon painted a tempting picture of a world guided by scientific insight in his seminal work â€Å"New Atlantis.† In this work, Bacon reveals his ideas for science and its future, and shows how they could work to improve the world and itsRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book New Atlantis 1877 Words   |  8 PagesNew Atlantis is the story of a navigator and his crew aiming to go to China, but an unprecedented blast of winds redirects their course. As they are blown off course, they soon come across an island that has never been charted on their maps before. The island is known as Bensalem. As they arrive close to the port, they received a scroll written in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Spanish. The scroll had told them that they had only sixteen days to stay on the port. The crew could also rec eive some suppliesRead MoreFrancis Bacon15624 Words   |  63 Pages  Francis Bacon: A Moralist Bacon is not a true moralist. His morality is a saleable morality. He is a moralist-cum-worldly wise man. Bacon appears as a moralist in his essays, for he preaches high moral principles and lays down valuable guidelines for human conduct. Some of his essays show him as a true lover and preacher of high ethical codes and conducts. For instance, in â€Å"Of Envy†, he puts: â€Å"A man that hath no virtue in himself, ever envieth virtue in others.† Then, in his essay â€Å"Of GoodnessRead MoreEssay Utopia4252 Words   |  18 PagesEntitled, ‘DE OPTIMO REIPUBLICATE STATU DEQUE NOVA INSULA UTOPIA, clarissimi disertissimique viri THOMAE MORI inclutae civitatis Londinensis civis et Vicecomitis’, translated into English would read, ‘ON THE BEST STATE OF A COMMONWEALTH AND ON THE NEW ISLAND OF UTOPIA, by the Most Distinguished and Eloquent Author THOMAS MORE Citizen and Undersheriff of the Famous City of London.’. Utopia (Latin: no-place) is a society of great planning and capability. A community where individuals compromisedRead MoreLife of Prophet Jeremiah3247 Words   |  13 Pagesdominant for two centuries, declined and fell. Its capital, Nineveh, was captured in 612 by the Babylonians and Medes. Egypt had a brief period of resurgence under the 26th dynasty (664–525) but did not prove strong enough to establish an empire. The new world power was the Neo-Babylonian empire, ruled by a Chaldean dynasty whose best known king was Nebuchadrezzar. The small and comparatively insignificant state of Judah had been a vassal of Assyria and, when Assyria declined, asserted its independence

Al- Qaeda, Homeland Security, and US Patriot Act Free Essays

string(86) " control over the world’s economy have been highly criticized by the Muslim nation\." Terrorism was viewed in the early days as an act of violence against a limited group of individuals. The acts then were consisted of bombing, kidnapping, killing prominent public officials, and others. The purpose of staging the terrorist act was to catch the government’s attention with the hope that the government may give in to the terrorists’ demands. We will write a custom essay sample on Al- Qaeda, Homeland Security, and US Patriot Act or any similar topic only for you Order Now The demands may be considered political, economical, or ideological. However, no matter the purpose is, the government usually do not heed the terrorist groups for they have been considered as a mere nuisance of the society that can easily be eradicated through military force. Additionally, terrorist groups were likened to a group of rebels operating as a group of limited members. The terrorist groups were not considered as a major threat to the nation’s security. But then, the horrifying 9/11 terrorist attack have drastically and clearly changed the world’s perception about terrorism. America, on the other hand, has greatly changed in its dealing with terrorism and terror groups. The International Community also realized that terrorism is a real threat to the world’s security. The remarkable 9/11 has indeed revealed the true face of terrorism. In response to the terrorism, America hunted all those responsible for the bombing by declaring an all out war against terrorism. Concomitant to the war is the enactment of all that would justify the government’s acts against terrorism. The government has enacted the U. S. Patriot Act and the Homeland Security. The president has rapidly heightened all measures to ensure security and to pursue all those responsible for the 9/11 and those who are connected with terrorism. Despite criticisms on the effect of the legislations to civil liberties, the government has been adamant on its stand to battle terrorism. The vengeance has eventually resulted to the war in Iraq and bombardment of Afghanistan. Likewise, the head of terrorism, Osama bin Laden and Sadam Hussein were apprehended and punished accordingly. Despite the declared death of the prominent architects of terrorism, the fight against terrorism still continues because of the belief that terrorism is still alive. The laws are also controlling within the nation. In line with this, the study will explore the organization of Al-Qaeda and at the same time present an evaluation of the counterterrorism laws. Body The name Al-Qaeda started to reverberate at the very onset of the 9/11 terrorist attack. The horrifying bombing of the very symbol of economic and military prowess of America, the World Trade Center, was rapidly linked to the Al-Qaeda and Osama bin Laden. Right after the attack, the government of the United States and foreign allies has united to condemn the unjustified act of terrorism. Al-Qaeda was believed to have been established in 1988. The Al-Qaeda was the by-product of the Muslims’ retaliation against the Soviet Union that occupied Afghanistan in 1979 through 1989 (Katzman). During the war against the Soviet Union, group of Muslims have started to recruit jihadis to fight against the Soviet Union. The recruiting and funding of the jihadis or fighters were initiated by Abdullah Azzam and his former student, Osama bin Laden, by founding the Maktab al-Khidamat which means Services Office (Katzman). This was also known as or Al Khifah. Notably, the Maktab al-Khidamat was believed to be the forerunner of Al-Qaeda. After the war with the Soviet Union, bin Laden and Abdullah Azzam established the Al-Qaeda in 1984 (Katzman). Al-Qaeda is an Arabic word which means â€Å"the base† (Katzman). Purposely, Al-Qaeda was established as a â€Å"rapid reaction force available to intervene wherever Muslim were perceived to be threatened† (Katzman). Al-Qaeda is also defined as â€Å"a secret, almost virtual organization, one that denies its own existence in order to remain in the shadows† (Atkins, 2004). The Al-Qaeda which was jointly founded was eventually controlled by Osama bin Laden as a result of Abdullah Azzam’s assassination. Meanwhile, the assassination of Azzam was linked to Osama bin Laden. Remarkably, Al-Qaeda came to be known worldwide right after the 9/11 attack. The firmness of the organization of Al-Qaeda was believed to have been founded on ideology. There has been several controlling ideology of Al-Qaeda. Aside from being a religious duty, the Holy War has been viewed as necessary for the salvation of one’s soul and a means of defending the Muslim nation (Martin, 2006). Second, peace with the West is impossible and the only course of action in defending Islam is through violence (Martin, 2006). Third, the Al-Qaeda considers Muslim government as apostasies and is violently overthrown when they cooperate with the West (Martin, 2006). Fourth, the Al-Qaeda believes that only two sides exist and that no apocalyptic conflict between Islam and forces of evil exist (Martin, 2006). From the time Al-Qaeda was founded in 1989, several terrorist activities were perpetuated in some other parts of the globe. In October 1993, the World Trade Center was attempted to be blown by Ramzi Ahmed Yusef (Katzman). In June 25, 1996, US Servicemen were killed while hundreds were wounded when a bomb exploded outside the Khobar Towers in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia (Martin, 2006). Then in August 7, 1998, a bombing was also planned n the US Embassies in Nairobi, Kenya and Tanzania that caused almost 200 innocent people. The USS Cole was also damaged by suicide bombing in October 12, 2000 where 17 sailors were killed (Martin, 2006). The most damaging terrorist activity was the terrifying 9/11 attack. The 9/11 terrorist attack has totally crashed the World Trade Center in New York. The third plane was directed Pentagon killing hundreds of people and the fourth plane crashed in the Pennsylvania field (Martin, 2006). The 9/11 terrorist attack has drastically changed the world’s perception on terrorism. Likewise, the attack has changed the world’s perception about Osama bin Laden. Primarily, the target of Al-Qaeda is the US government and the American people. America has been considered as the enemy of the Muslim nation because of the wars perpetrated against them. The economic embargo and the control over the world’s economy have been highly criticized by the Muslim nation. You read "Al- Qaeda, Homeland Security, and US Patriot Act" in category "Papers" Eventually, the perception that the West is the enemy to Muslim nations has been shaped. Since the West is considered as the enemy, the Al-Qaeda’s target has been the American people. It is noteworthy that all the attacks have been perpetrated against US embassies and US nationals. Aside from the Americans, the terrorist also targeted citizens of Europe, Israel, Russia and other allies of America. Likewise, the 9/11 is a clear message or expression of hatred of terrorist against the Americans. In order to send a clear and strong message, the terrorist has implemented high-profile target. In addition, they adopted the suicide bombing as a means of carrying out their designs because it is simplified and a means of eliminating last minute flexibility (Mannes, 2004). In addition, they targeted high officials and use the media in order for the government not to undermine the target. Al-Qaeda also adopted the unconventional means of acquiring information through an extensive research and contacts of professionals. Internet has been essential for Al-Qaeda in penetrating the security, intelligence, and military organizations of other countries. Notably, the information the Al-Qaeda has gathered were used in planning their attacks in several countries. Additionally, Al-Qaeda’s primary goal was to obtain nuclear weapon (Mannes, 2004). The Al-Qaeda has successfully created their own bomb through the documents they have captured. Besides, professionals were also recruited and being turned into a radical in order to obtain materials from the outside. Interestingly, the group was able to create a biological weapon through the extensive research done by Ayman Zawahari, a medical doctor (Mannes, 2004). The group also studied in order to create their own weapons. Another tactic of the Al-Qaeda in carrying out their mission is to at least impair the economy of other country. This has been done by terrifying tourists through kidnapping of foreign nationals visiting a particular nation. Furthermore, bombing of public places has also threatened tourists from visiting places occupied by terrorist groups. In assessing the Al-Qaeda organization, it can be observed that the group has been patient and enduring in order to succeed in their plans. The tactics and strategies adopted by the group can be considered to have been brilliantly drafted and carried out. However, the group was molded and blinded by extremism. On the part of the American government, the 9/11 attack cannot just be disregarded. Right after the attack, the administration of Bush formed the 9/11 Commission. Primarily, the Commission was directed to conduct an investigation on the bombing. Thereafter, the name of Al-Qaeda appeared. In response to the 9/11 attack, Bush administration has created a new federal office of Homeland Security nine days after the attack (Andryszewski, 2004). Pres. Bush also signed into law the U. S. Patriot Act, 45 days after the 9/11/. In addition, then President Bush also signed the Homeland Security Act of 2002 in November 22, 2002 (Andryszewski, 2004). All these were the result of the fear of another terrorist attack. Furthermore, these laws have essentially changed the essence of security in the country. Meanwhile, in order to identify the targets of the laws, the government found the need to define terrorism. Terrorism has been defined by Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) as â€Å"the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a Government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives† (Sauter and Carafano, 2005, p. 65). From the definition, it is clear that terrorism has been recognized to exist within the country targeting the citizens and outside the country targeting Americans. Hence, the counterterrorism laws have been designed to deal with terrorism within and outside America. One of the weapons of America in fighting terrorism is the Homeland Security which has been referred to; â€Å"consists of all military activities aimed at preparing for, protecting against, or managing the consequences of attacks on American soil, including the CONUS and U. S. territories and possessions. It includes all actions to safeguard the populace and its property, critical infrastructure, the government, and the military, its installations, and deploying forces† (Larson, et. al. , 2000). As to the military function of the Homeland Security, it has five major key areas of focus. One is the WMD domestic preparedness and civil support (Larson, et. al). Second is continuity of government to ensure or restore civil authority (Larson, et. al. , 2000). Third is border and coastal defense which includes management of large-scale refugee flow and revention of WMD smuggling that may potentially create threat to security (Larson, et. al, 2000). Fourth is the continuation of military operation (Larson, et. al. , 2000). And, last is the national missile defense (Larson, et. al. , 2000). In domestic preparedness, the FBI and Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) can request from the Department of Defense the cooperation of the federal Army (Larson, et. al, 2000). Likewise, the National Guard can also participate in maintaining civil authorities. Interestingly, military has an essential role in all areas of Homeland Security. In a broader scope, the Homeland Security is defined as â€Å"a concerted national effort to prevent terrorist attacks within United Sates, reduce America’s vulnerability to terrorism, and minimize the damage and recover from attacks that do occur† (Bolt, Colleta, and Shacklford, 2005, p. 433). In order to effectively fight terrorism, the administration of Bush has formed the Department of Homeland Security. The Department is composed of 22 federal departments, agencies, and bureaus from Central Intelligence Agency, FBI, DOD, and Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Andryszewski, 2004). These different agencies have been divided into Directorates with unique duties and jurisdiction. The first is the Border and Transportation Security Directorate which is responsible for ensuring the borders of America from terrorists coming from the outside of the country (Homeland Security, 2009). Aside from that, the Directorate ensures safety of land, sea, and air transportations. Immigration laws are also attached to the responsibility of the Directorate. The second is the Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate which is tasked to coordinate with federal government in case of attack (Homeland Security, 2009). The third is Science and Technology Directorate responsible for biological, radiological, and chemical attacks, and nuclear weapons (Homeland Security, 2009). The last is the Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection Directorate tasked to gather intelligence and information in detecting terrorist activities (Homeland Security, 2009). Furthermore, it is also mandated to identify infrastructures which may be vulnerable to terrorism. An Undersecretary is assigned to administer each Directorate. The Undersecretary has been assigned a task to â€Å"access, receive, and analyze law enforcement information from agencies of the Federal Government, State and local government agencies, and private sector entities, and to integrate such information to identify and assess the nature and scope of terrorist threat to the homeland; detect and identify threats of terrorism against United States; and understand such threat in light of actual and potential vulnerabilities of the homeland† (Bolt, Colleta, and Shackelford, 2005, p. 433). Looking back into the definition, Homeland Security has three major concerns. First, prevent terrorist attacks in America (Fisher and Green, 2003). Second, reduce the vulnerability to terrorism of America (Fisher and Green, 2003). Third, minimize damages and recovery in case of attack (Fisher and Green, 2003). In preventing terrorist attack, the Department of Homeland Security has enhanced its intelligence and warning devices capable of tracking terrorist activities (Sauter and Carafano, 2005). In addition, national laws have been enacted to deal with domestic terrorism. Security within borders has also been intensified. Furthermore, transportation has been highly monitored to detect travelling terrorists. In the second duty of the Homeland Security, the Department is tasked to minimize vulnerability by curbing any possibility of bringing any weapon of mass destruction into the country. This way, critical infrastructure and catastrophic terrorism are prevented (Sauter and Carafano, 2005). These kinds of terrorism involve attack through computer. Finally, the third duty is fulfilled by improving the capability of the Department in responding to a terrorist attack. Response may not only involve military defense but rather, it entails preparedness in rescuing lives of the victims and in containing the place attack to limit the number of victims. Another prevalent counterterrorism law of the government is the U. S. Patriot Act. Since the Act was abruptly enacted into law as it was signed 45 days after the 9/11 attack, the Act was perceived to be an effective means of curbing terrorism. Primarily, the U. S. Patriot Act was enacted to prevent terrorism but has effectively expanded the power of the law enforcement and intelligence agencies in carrying out their duties with regard to terrorism. There are basically four ways in carrying out the responsibilities of the Act. First, the Act applies to fighting terrorism through the use of investigative tools previously available in fighting other forms of organized crime (Katzman). Second, the Act has eradicated any kind of barriers that hinders the free flow of information between and among law enforcement (Katzman). Third, the act validated the use of new technology and identifying new threats (Katzman). Last, the Act has created new terrorism-related crimes and increased penalties of crimes (Katzman). Under the first way, the tool that has been accepted or authorized includes electronic surveillances to detect terrorism in full-range and roving wiretaps to be authorized by a federal judge (Katzman). Through the roving wiretaps, the authorities are allowed to use electronic surveillance in response to â€Å"time-sensitive criminals or terrorist activities† (Purpura, 2007, p. 176). In addition, federal agents can also conduct investigations secretly under the authority of a valid warrant obtained also secretly. The person being investigated is not also informed about the warrant. Through this, the federal agents would be able to identify agents, eliminate immediate threats, and coordinate the arrest of suspected individuals (Katzman). Furthermore, business records of individuals linked to terrorism can be examined through the order sought from the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (Katzman). The information held by one federal agency can also be shared to other agency in order to effectively fight terrorism. Traditionally, each agency kept information confidential from other agencies in adherence to the agency’s independence. However, through the Patriot Act, the confidentiality of information or record is no longer controlling. In order to fully empower the federal agents in eradicating terrorism, jurisdiction as to warrant has been made general. Warrants can be obtained in any district and may be executed at any place being investigated for terrorist activities. Interestingly, cyber hacking has also been allowed in order to trace communications related to terrorism and at the same time tract hackers (Katzman). Furthermore, in order to fully prevent any terrorist activities and ensure the punishment of terrorists, the Act has increased penalties and added crimes that are categorized as terrorism. Among the crimes includes harboring any person linked to terrorism. Likewise, conspiracy crimes and offenses have been redefined and penalties of such have been increased. There has also been a specific penalty for mass transit attack and attacks using biological weapons. Finally, some terrorist crimes have no statute of limitation while some crimes have a lengthy. It is noteworthy that the Patriot Act has been criticized because of some acts that are obviously interfering with the rights of the citizens. Through the Act, the security in airports has been intensified and the law enforcers are even authorized to detain immigrants or suspected terrorist within the authorized time of detaining a person for questioning. Profiling has also been prevalent because Arabs, Muslims, and Asians were treated separately. Visas and passport of these people were also subjected to strict scrutiny. In addition, library records have been authorized by the Act to be reviewed by the federal agents. Furthermore, Emails can also be tracked by the federal agents on the mere basis of suspicion. More importantly, bank transactions suspected of funding a terrorist activity can be legally tracked by the federal agents. This has in fact changed the law on money laundering. Since the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security and U. S. Patriot Act, terrorism has been effectively deterred. The enhancement of security measures within borders and ports have hindered terrorist from pursuing their evil designs. In addition, several crimes such as smuggling have been prosecuted through the implementation of the counterterrorism laws. Several terrorist suspects have also been arrested through the active fulfillment of the federal agent of their duties. In line with this, suspects were thoroughly investigated due to the expansion of the court’s jurisdiction in trying and hearing terrorism cases. Remarkably, the laws have effectively brought back security within the nation. The fear of another terrorist attack has finally been eradicated. Despite criticisms, the effort of the government in curtailing terrorism has bear fruit. Notably, the people behind the 9/11 attack and other terrorist attacks have been prosecuted and punished accordingly. The very seat of terrorism has also been bombarded and paralyzed in order to prevent the rise of any sign of terrorism. The measures taken by the U. S. in fighting terrorism has also been adopted by other countries in their own fight to terrorism. The application of the counterterrorism laws has also reached policies of other countries. One of which is the Money Laundering Law which has affected the bank transactions that passes through countries. Meanwhile, financial supports from suspicious donor have contributed to the success of terrorist activities. In order to avoid the free flow of the funds to support suspicious organizations, the government has strictly monitored bank transactions involving suspicious depositors and suspicious funds through the Patriot Act. Terrorist acts have also been effectively deterred at the very port of entry. The security equipments have been intensified and upgraded to detect any weapon that may be used to perpetrate a terrorist activity. Such equipments include scanners, surveillance cameras, and x-ray machines. The use of such equipments has been legally justified by the counterterrorism laws. Remarkably, all these measures have been effective in pacifying the nation from the threat of terrorism. Conclusion Traditionally, security can be acquired through the walls erected around houses. Terrorism, on the other hand, was considered as a petty problem yet a crime capable of being curtailed. More importantly, any act of terrorism can be disregarded by the government and responded through defensive military attack. However, the essence of security and terrorism has drastically changed after the 9/11 attack. Terrorism has become real and the injury it causes is unimaginable. Terrorism has also become the main enemy of the whole world. It also united the international community in curtailing and in eradicating any sign of it. Likewise, the 9/11 has angered America. The architecture of the attack also proved that Al-Qaeda can penetrate and destroy the security of America. The world’s perception of security has also drastically changed. America, on the other hand, has been quite paranoid about its security. However, it cannot be blamed because of the damaged caused by the 9/11 attack. The America viewed threat to have existed within and outside its territory. More importantly, the reality about Al-Qaeda has finally been revealed through the bombing of twin towers. Al-Qaeda has indeed existed for a very long period. It has been living as a shadow that its existence was doubted by security forces. The organization has also been intelligent in carrying out its mission by extensively and safely planning the attacks. Likewise, the measures it has adopted in implementing the plans are sure yet deadly. But such cannot be considered difficult because of the ideology that has been instilled among the members. On the part of the victim of the attack, the countermeasures that have been adopted are the Homeland Security and U. S. Patriot Act. The Homeland Security was established as a means of centralizing the effort of the government in curbing terrorism. The Patriot Act, on the other hand, has enhanced the power of the federal agents in carrying their responsibilities with regard to terrorism. Any means that may be effective in tracking any sign of terrorism has been adopted and applied all throughout the country. Above all, the intelligence and security capabilities of the federal government have been heightened to effectively and efficiently eradicate terrorism. Both laws have been directed against terrorism. Upon the implementation of the counterterrorism laws, several changes have transpired. The enhancement of security has ensured the safety of America and American people. Several terrorist has also been arrested and punished accordingly. More importantly, the fear that has been instilled by the 9/11 attack among the people has been pacified. Peace and security has also been restored. Above all, no terrorist attacked against America followed. Hence, the measures adopted and implemented by the government has been effective and responded to the international problem. References Andryszewski, T. (2004). Terrorism in America. New York: Twenty-First Century Books Atkins, S. (2004). Encyclopedia of modern worldwide extremists and extremist groups New York: Greenwood Publishing Group. Bolt, P. J. , Coletta, D. V. , and Shackelford, C. G. (2005). American defense policy. Johns Hopkins University Press Homeland Security. (2009). Department Components. Retrieved March 9, 2009, from http://www. dhs. gov/xabout/structure/ Katzman, K. (17 August 2005). Congressional Research Service. Al Qaeda: Profile and Threat Assessment. Retrieved March 9, 2009, from http://fas. org/sgp/crs/terror/RL33038. pdf Larson, E. V. , Peters, J. E. , Arroyo Center, and Rand Corporation. (2000). Preparing the U. S. Army for Homeland Security: Concepts, Issues, and Options. New York: Rand Corporation. Mannes, A. (2004). Profiles in terror: the guide to Middle East terrorist organizations. New York: Rowman Littlefield. Martin, G. (2006). Understanding Terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives, and Issues. New York: Sage Publications. Purpura, P. P. (2007). Terrorism and Homeland Security: An Introduction with Applications New York: Butterworth-Heinemann. Sauter, M. , and Carafano, J. J. (2005) Homeland Security: A Complete Guide to Understanding, Preventing, and Surviving Terrorism. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. How to cite Al- Qaeda, Homeland Security, and US Patriot Act, Papers

Public Relations and PR plan Of Apple Inc †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Public Relations and PR plan Of Apple Inc. Answer: Introduction Apple inc. is a company that started as a computer manufacturer in the year 1976 (Lewis 2014). However, the technology giant has successfully entered and conquered most of the domains in the sphere of technology. Starting from iPods, which made it the most dominant player in the market for music players; the company entered the mobile industry in the year 2007 and instantly created frenzy among the consumer base. The company has been referred to as one of the most successful producers of mobile phones and they are known for unique and unmatched qualities. The premium build and quality of their products separate them from other competitive brands in the market (Ritchie 2015). Recently, there have been issues over a concern that the batteries of iPhone are slowing the phone down and leading to sudden shutdown of the device and lag in the performance. This was completely in opposite to the quality of products that the company has been manufacturing and selling for so long. Appreciation of the Problem The issue with iPhone batteries not working properly or slowing the phone down has been a major issue for the company, which has lead to creation of a negative image of the company in the market. The problem was that those with iPhone 6, 6 plus and iPhone SE received updates that intentionally slowed down the phone so as the user updated to a new iPhone tht was released in the market. In addition, to cover up this intention, the company initiated battery replacement at a reduced rate for the iPhones that faced such issues. The company reduced the price for replacement from $79 to $29 as an offer price (Apple 2018). This resulted in people having a negative perception regarding the company and the trust that Apple enjoyed in the market took a hit. This lead to people shifting to other brands those were in the market that promised premium products with better battery life and processor power. Apple face a dip in the sales during this period, as the people had apprehensions picking an i Phone from the counter regardless of all the previous brand loyalty that they had for Apple. New strategies had to be implemented to bring the trust back on company and its products. People need to be ensured that such practices will not be repeated and clear communication is necessary from the company spokesperson. Objective The primary objective for the PR team of Apple has to be the restoration of companys image in the public and to establish the fact that they are the most advanced and best in the market. The company has a huge brand value and people are brand loyal to the company (Steenkamp 2014). It provides the PR team with an added edge as their strategies can be implemented with better effect as they have the required consumer base. The PR team has to work in a way that the communication between the company and its consumer base is very clear and hence people are aware of the various strategies and actions that are taken by the company. Defining public The target base for the current PR crisis will be those who are affected with the battery issue primarily. The company has a huge consumer base and has a global reach for its products. The market that Apple enjoys is global and the fan base that it has for its various products is spread throughout the world. This dominant market share of the Apple products has allowed them to rule the domain for such long time. In light of the recent battery issue that the company has faced, it should target the people that have faced the issue and those who are in prospect of facing the same issue as they use the same iPhone models that have encountered the problem. It is seen that people did lose the trust that they had on the brand Apple due to their intentional slowing down of phones through the battery issues and processor lags. However, the defined public should be those who have faced the issue with the phone, it should be noted that the communication must address the entire consumer base as w ell as the potential consumers so that they feel assured while buying a new iPhone in their next purchase (Solomon et al. 2014). Selection of media and technique Following a crisis such as the battery issue in the iPhone, it is very essential for the Public relations department to work hard and restore the public image of the company. The public relation team must concentrate on making the communication between the company executives and the consumer base clearer so that the public is not kept in dark regarding the issue and the various steps that the company is taking to resolve the same (Protess and McCombs 2016). The common technique that Apple has used in the past was maintaining silence on an issue of concern and let it resolve. Previously the company has had software issues for which the PR team maintained complete silence and then they resolved the issue internally and provided an online software update to the users. This resolved the issue without much light to the issue but such steps do not work when the problem is as grave as the battery issue at present. The company PR team should come out and defend the position of the brand by o rganizing a press conference that will discuss about the battery issue and the various steps that will be taken to resolve the issue. The PR executives will need to send press release on behalf of Apple inc. so that the media is informed of the problem and steps that are being taken to resolve the issue. The target base is huge, segmentation based on age is not possible for a company like Apple, and hence the medium they should pick for conveying the relevant statements should be preferably the online media and the newspapers. The online media will pass the information widely to everyone on the web 2.0 platform as it has enormous number of people using the same platform every minute (John 2013). The newspaper on the other hand will give out the information to all those who religiously follow newspaper on a daily basis. Budgeting Every PR plan is considered successful in accordance to the budget that it uses in achieving the required target. The funds have to be acquired from the company to organize and implement the entire PR plan so that the right message is sent out correctly to the target group (Austin and Pinkleton 2015). The motive of a PR plan is to present information that sufficiently matches the requirements of a situation or crisis that took place. The current PR plan involves in having press conference, press releases and a strongdigital marketing for the company. The press conference and press release will need specific amounts to be allocated. The sector of digital marketing will need substantial budget because it has the maximum reach and the best results can be achieved with its proper use. The public feedback and responses can be achieved from the digitalmarketing section and the events that are arranged can be streamed live so that the people can witness the event virtually from anywhere in the world (Tiago and Verssimo 2014). The budget breakdown is provided in the table below- PR Materials Amount (in USD) Press conference/ Media events $50,000 Printed handouts (press release, backgrounder) $15,000 Digital marketing (websites, social media) $25,000 Total $90,000 Table- PR Budgeting Source- (Author) Evaluation The evaluation of a PR plan is the most important part that has to be done in order to effectively execute the plan. Firstly, the various media like the newspapers, television coverage or articles in other sources should be studied and analyzed so that a better understanding of the present image of the company is achieved and then worked upon that as per the PR plan(Dozier, Grunig and Grunig 2013). Surveys should be held and an analysis of the annual reports should be done so that the financial aspect of the current crisis is understood and then the plan is worked accordingly. After the plan is executed, it is essential to gather the various instances when the company has come up in the media and analyze those to understand the impact of the PR plan. As the PR plan has digital marketing incorporation, it is essential to understand the trend that has been created in the online sphere. Web stats should be counted in order to understand the reach of the posts and promotional campaigns a nd messages that have taken place for the company. Conclusion To conclude, the PR plan and its effectiveness will lead the company to better public image and regain the trust that has been lost due to the battery issue. iPhones are one of the most loved gadgets around the world and hence people who use it are very concerned about the quality that they get in their device. Moreover, the price of an iPhone is higher than that of any other in its competition and hence buyers will demand a value for money assistance from the company whenever they face any problem. References Apple. (2018).A Message to Our Customers. [online] Available at: https://www.apple.com/iphone-battery-and-performance/ [Accessed 8 Feb. 2018]. Austin, E.W. and Pinkleton, B.E., 2015.Strategic public relations management: Planning and managing effective communication campaigns(Vol. 10). Routledge. Dozier, D.M., Grunig, L.A. and Grunig, J.E., 2013.Manager's guide to excellence in public relations and communication management. Routledge. John, N.A., 2013. Sharing and Web 2.0: The emergence of a keyword.new media society,15(2), pp.167-182. Lewis, T.G., 2014. Booms. InBook of Extremes(pp. 51-67). Copernicus, Cham. Protess, D. and McCombs, M.E. eds., 2016.Agenda setting: Readings on media, public opinion, and policymaking. Routledge. Ritchie, R., 2015. History of iPhone: Apple reinvents the phone.Dosegljivo: https://www. imore. com/history-iphone-original. Solomon, M.R., Dahl, D.W., White, K., Zaichkowsky, J.L. and Polegato, R., 2014.Consumer behavior: Buying, having, and being(Vol. 10). Pearson. Steenkamp, J.B., 2014. How global brands create firm value: the 4V model.International Marketing Review,31(1), pp.5-29. Tiago, M.T.P.M.B. and Verssimo, J.M.C., 2014. Digital marketing and social media: Why bother?.Business Horizons,57(6), pp.703-708.

Major Innovations in Technology free essay sample

When we started to make parts It was natural to create a single department of the factory to make that part, but usually one workman performed all of the operations necessary on a small part. The rapid press of production made it necessary to devise plans of production that would avoid having the workers falling over one another. Benjamin Franklin l inadvertently took the Stroke of two of those Jars thro my Arms and Body, when they were very near full charged.It seemed a universal Blow from head to foot throughout the Body, and was followed by a violent quick Trembling In the Trunk, which wore gradually off In a few seconds. It was some Moments before I could collect my Thoughts so as to know what was the Matter; for I did not see the Flash though my Eye was on the spot of the Prime conductor from whence It struck the Back of my Hand, nor did I hear the Crack though the Bystanders say it was a loud one; nor did I particularly feel the Stroke on my Hand, though I afterwards found it a d raised a Swelling there the bigness of half a Swan Shot or pistol Bullet. We will write a custom essay sample on Major Innovations in Technology or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page My Arms and Back of my Neck felt somewhat numb the remainder of the Evening, and my Breastbone was sore for a Week after, [as] if it had been bruised. What the Consequence would be, if such a Shock were taken through the Head, I know not. In a letter to Peter Collision, February 4, 1751 Major Innovations in Technology Between 1800 C. E. To 1900 C. E. In the Americas. By Question: What were the major innovations in technology between 1800 C. E. To 1900 C.E. In the Americas. Industrialization workmen brought to it the parts as they were needed in exactly the same way that one builds a house. When we started to make parts it was natural to create a single over one another.. .. Throughout the Body, and was followed by a violent quick Trembling in the Trunk, which wore gradually off in a few seconds. It was some Moments before I could though my Eye.

Panic Disorder and other Anxiety Disorders

Panic Disorder and other Anxiety Disorders Free Online Research Papers Panic Disorder is apart of a larger class of psychological disorders known as Anxiety Disorders. Subjects with panic disorder have what are known as panic attacks which can occur at any time for any number of reasons. During panic attacks subjects will have labored breathing, heart palpitations, chest pain, intense apprehension, and fear of losing control. There are medical and psychological ways of treating this disorder. The psychotherapy way of treating Panic Disorder is known as Panic Control Treatment. Panic Control Treatment can be split up into five main sections or steps. These sections include educate and inform subject with regard to symptoms, exposing the subject to interoceptive sensations that remind them of panic attacks, cognitive-behavioral therapy, deep muscle relaxation, and assigning homework. The first step in Panic Control Treatment is to educate and inform with regard to the symptoms. You start this by diffusing the danger and reassuring the subject that his symptoms do not have fatal consequences. Start with the heart rate, subject having panic attacks experience heart rates of up to 200 beats per min. Assure the patient they are not having a heart attack and the human heart can beat that way for days. Second is suffocation. Your brain has reflex mechanisms to make you breath. If a person feels like they are going to faint it is due to rapid breathing high in their chest with leads to a decrease of oxygen in the body causing hyperventilation. The effects of any change in the level of carbon dioxide include your heart pumping harder and faster, increased constriction of blood vessels in brain (feeling of dizziness disorientation), and increased alkalinity of nerve cells, (more jittery excitable). When this occurs the subject should breathe from their diaphrag m and/or use the vasa vegal reflex which involves putting palms together in front of chest to prevent fainting. Another technique is to breathe into a paper bag to prevent hyperventilation. The weakness the body is experiencing is due to dilated blood vessels and high levels of adrenaline. Dilated blood vessels keep the blood from circulating in a functional fashion. The second step is to expose the subject to clusters of interoceptive sensations that remind them of panic attacks. They do this by having the subject perform various tasks to create the sensations. This can include spinning in a chair to invoke nausea and dizziness, hyperventilating to cause tingling, disorientation, and shortness of breath. The therapeutic effects were proved by Carter in ’95. He found that safe places make a person less likely to panic therefore the sensations do not as a matter of course lead to panic. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy is the third step or section. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy starts with the basic attitudes and perceptions concerning the dangerousness of the feared situation. This starts with identifying the danger. Subjects are expected to keep a diary of cognitions and interoceptive sensations. The diary is to be put into the form of situation, symptom security, and thoughts. For example a subject is sitting in his office and begins to choke, feel mildly dizzy, and increased heart rate. Consequently the person begins thinking â€Å"Oh I can’t have a heart attack here! People will see me and I might get fired. I’m suffocating and I’m going to faint.† Next we try to explore external stimuli as a trigger. The office in this situation could have been stuffy and/or warm which caused these feelings of suffocations. Another possibility is that the subject was under a lot of stress and had negative or fearful thoughts before the symptoms o ccurred. Not all stimuli are in awareness therefore some probing or exploring of possibilities is necessary. Lastly decatasrophize the situation by using a disputation. The fourth step is deep muscle relaxation including systematic desensitization and breaking retraining. This is effective for many different reasons. One of these reasons is that the response is incompatible with fear therefore replacing it with relaxation. Jocobson’s research conducted during the 30’s found that S.N.S. arousal is not possible when striated muscles are relaxed. It was reported that deep muscle relaxation had a direct correlation with blood pressure decrease and improvement of ulcer catilus. Wolpe’s ’58 was the first experiment to develop a method fro treating phobias with muscle relaxation. This allowed for gradual exposure to stimuli that the subject fears while maintaining control of symptoms. In order for this to happen the subject must be trained to relax all muscles in the body. After this the subject sets goals and clarifies vague complaints. The next step is to develop hierarchies. The subject will then act out these hierarchi es gradually exposing them to the â€Å"supposedly† harmful stimuli. Apart of this step is the Anxiety Scale which is a common way of rating your current state of anxiety. The therapeutic effect of this is to reduce anxiety increases before cognitive and S.N.S. arousal are excessive. The final step of Panic Control Treatment is to assign homework. A lot to the therapy and treatment for panic disorder will be conducted during everyday life. This homework includes relaxation training, and challenging catastrophic thoughts. Another part of the homework is to enact the actual tasks, such as using the hierarchies and coping statements. Coping statements are statement subject repeat to themselves based on actual experiences. The National Institution of Mental Health conducted a study on Panic Control Therapy at four separate University research centers. The study original study was headed by Barlow in 1989 and the follow up also by Barlow in ’91. The 304 subjects in the study had a baseline of five panic attacks per week and were randomly assigned to four conditional groups. The study was carried out over 12 weeks. The independent variable in the study was P.C.T. and drug treatment. The drugs used in the study were Tricyclic Antidepressants. Group 1 was given P.C.T. and the drugs. Group 2 was given P.C.T. and a placebo. Group 3 was given only P.C.T. Group four received only the drug. Groups 1, 2, and 4 all had the same results. 90% of the subjects in these groups were panic free at the end of the 12 weeks. Group 3 only saw 49% of subject become panic free at end of 12 weeks. Other studies like this one were done by Barlow and Clark ’94, Barlow ’97, and Clark ‘2001 with a 15 month follow up. At the two year follow up the subjects in Groups 1, 2, and 4 were all panic free while Group 3 got sick again. In conclusion the National Institution of Mental Health, Public Health Division issued a quote, â€Å"The psychological treatment should offered initially, followed by drug treatment, for those patients who do not respond adequately of for those who psychological treatmen t is not available!† Research Papers on Panic Disorder and other Anxiety DisordersPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyThree Concepts of PsychodynamicThe Hockey GameGenetic EngineeringPETSTEL analysis of IndiaRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andThe Spring and AutumnThe Masque of the Red Death Room meaningsIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of Self

Questions and Answers Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Questions and Answers - Assignment Example He was responsible for coming up with designs of his products and with his market experience; he produced exactly what the customers wanted. He was passionate about satisfying his customers, and this made the business grow very fast. He employed people to do the actual production, and he spent much time developing new designs. With plenty of time to develop new designs, the firm was able to come up with a variety of designs to satisfy the market. The appearance of his shop also contributed to the success of his business. He ensured that the room was decorated with his products. The decoration produced an ambiance that caught the eye of the customers. The employees dressing were a crucial factor in promoting purchases. The employees’ dressing was elegant, and they wore the jewelry that was sold in the shop. He also developed a section to sell accessories such as ties and umbrellas that were decorated in the business colors and hence drew more customers to the business. He had a desire to increase his sales and expand his market share. However, it was quite challenging since all markets were unique (Martincich Retrieved from http://protectedpdf.iese.edu/descargas/M-663-E-1101156.pdf). The attempt to export jewelry to Geneva proved to be very challenging. A former employee had started producing similar products and selling them without his consent. He had a lot of emphasis on having stalls selling his products only as an attempt to reduce the copying of his designs. He did not perform a deep market research in Geneva and hence had no insight on the market. After his failure in Geneva, he decided to engage a marketer who would sell his products in other countries. He hoped that a good marketer who understood the market would provide a good link to many customers in other countries. However, he remained rigid on maintaining the prestige and

Analysis Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Analysis - Case Study Example The top two occupations that offer the most job openings are postsecondary and elementary teachers with 892,000 and 587,000 job openings respectively. Middle school teachers and secondary school teachers held the 4th and 6th position in terms of job growth. The career with the least job openings is physical therapist at 72,000 jobs openings. Other than teaching positions five careers that have a good outlook for the period 2004-2014 are accounting, software engineers, physicians, lawyers, and managerial analysis. During this period the US economy will generate 486,000 jobs in accounting and 268,000 software engineer jobs. The primary reason people attend college is go obtain an education in order to find a job. The information provided on figure 6-2 is very valuable for college students because it provides them with data than can be used to make a change in their curriculums. It is not a wise investment to study a profession for which availability of jobs is limited. The chart was very useful, but it only provided data for 20 professions and there are hundreds of different occupations that require a college degree which were not mentioned in the

SWOT Analysis of New York City Police Department Research Paper

SWOT Analysis of New York City Police Department - Research Paper Example According to Henry, the major strength of the department lies in its management team who has taken various strategic steps for curtailing the accelerating crime rate in the city (14). Following are the strengths of NYPD: 1. Strong management team – When Bratton was given the charge of running NYPD, the foremost thing that he did was the organizational restructuring. The policies of the organization were changed and the entire structure was changed to ensure that the duties and responsibilities were properly divided among the divisions. Division of tasks leads to less workload and timely completion of the tasks. He developed a vision for the entire management team that has been helping the team in following a clear path of direction for effective performance in the region (Sugarman, 159). 2. Wide range of departments for specific purposes – The major strength of this organization lies in its varying range of departments as each one of them has been developed with a speci fic purpose. For instance, it has developed Emergency Service Unit, Traffic Enforcement District, Major Case Squad, Evidence Collection Team, Crime Scene Unit, Task Forces, Highway Patrol, Mounted Unit, Auxiliary Police, Technical Assistance Response Unit and many more (Nagy and Joel, 20). 3. Implementation of Compstat Technology – Compstat which stands for the Computerized Statistics program is a strategic management process that is goal-oriented. This system makes efficient use of three key components of NYPD i.e. business strategy, information technology and accountability of management for controlling the crime along with the police neighborhoods. It has been implemented in NYPD with the aim of oppressing the crimes and it enhances the quality of community’s life by providing the residents a safe and secured environment. The system has helped the organization in successfully fulfilling its mission (Henry, 2).

The Hardy Weinberg Theorem In Genetics Biology Essay

The Hardy Weinberg Theorem In Genetics Biology Essay Introduction The Hardy Weinberg Theorem is a mathematical formula that allows allele and genotype frequencies in a population of diploid or polypoid individuals to be interrelated, where the frequency of one allele is represented as p, and the frequency of the other is represented as q (the sum of which = 1.0). The sum of the different genotype frequencies (homozygotes and heterozygotes) also equates to 1.0. Where p and q are the frequencies of the alleles for a particular gene in a population, the genotype frequency can be expressed as: p ² + 2pq + q ² = 1 Where p ² = frequency of organisms that are homozygous for the first allele q ² = frequency of organisms that are homozygous for the second allele 2pq = frequency of heterozygous organisms The Hardy Weinberg equilibrium stays constant as long as there is random mating, no migration, no natural selection, no mutation and no genetic drift (N=infinite), (Fig. 1). N = infinite Figure 1. A graph to show the Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium. Put together using data from: Lori Lawsons lecture 15, Neutral Evolution and Genetic Drift, 2010 Therefore the population does not evolve. If an allele or genotype frequency is seen to change from one generation to the next then it is clear that one or more of the micro-evolutionary forces (mutation, migration etc) are acting on those traits in the population. Without mutation there are no new alleles or genes and so no evolution. Mutation must occur in the germ line to be significant in evolutionary terms. J. B. S. Haldane (1892-1964) stated that the number of germ cell divisions per generation is higher in males; therefore the mutation rate will be higher in males. Gene flow (also called migration) brings new genotypes into populations and is critical for the long term survival of a population, especially if it is a small population. For migration to be Catherine Carrick 200884273 effective in respect to evolution there must be successful reproduction among migrating populations. It is the movement of alleles between populations, not individuals. Wrights Island model of migration (Fig. 2) shows that migration homogenizes populations (where they consist of similar elements uniform throughout). Genetic drift is another form of micro-evolution and leads to random changes in allele frequencies. It is fundamentally a result of finite population size and has the most rapid and dramatic effect on small populations who show reduced variability. Drift increases divergence between populations so genetic variation must be replenished. Mutation replenishes variation and at equilibrium there is a balance between the rate of mutation and the rate of drift. Figure 2.Wrights island model. Put together using data from: Lori Lawsons lecture 15, Neutral Evolution and Genetic Drift, 2010 Charles Darwin (1859) defined natural selection (another micro-evolutionary force) with his four postulates; 1) individuals within populations are variable, 2) there is heritability (variation among individuals partly passed on from parents), 3) that in every generation there are some individuals that are fitter (survival/reproductive success) than others and 4) fitness is not random. Natural selection is the equivalent of differential reproduction as a result of an organisms interaction with the environment and the populations inherent variation. It acts on heritable (not acquired) characteristics at an individual level and not for the good of the species. However, the consequences occur in populations. This is demonstrated by melanism in the peppered moth (Biston betularia). The causes of melanism in the peppered moth have been well studied since the 1950s and show natural selection at work. Camouflage is key to predator avoidance in the peppered moth and there are two distinct mor phs. One being white with black or brown specks (typica) and the other predominantly black (carbonaria). The former is well camouflaged on trees with lichen on their bark and the later; better suited to dark or blackened bark. During the industrial revolution in the 19th century, an increase of soot and industrial pollution coincided with the appearance of the carbonaria form. Original studies on the relation between B. betularias crypsis and lichens failed to consider two important details; firstly, that the natural resting place of the moths is high in the canopy during the day and not on the trunk as previously thought, and secondly, human vision was used to simulate a birds view of the moths originally, but avian species are sensitive to different wavelengths of light and so will have a different view of the moths and their respective camouflage to that of humans. Taking this into consideration, Majerus, Brunton and Stalker (2000) devised a more systematic experiment to examine the UV characteristics of Catherine Carrick 200884273 both moth morphs and some of the lichens they rested on as demonstrated by the images in Fig. 3. Figure 3. The typica and carbonaria forms of the peppered moth as they appear in normal visible light (a), and as they appear under UV light (b). Image taken from MAJERUS, BRUNTON STALKER, 2000 It was their conclusion that moth colour provides sufficient camouflage both in human-visible and UV- spectra to crutose lichens (as appose to different lichen flora originally hypothesised to be rested upon by black and peppered morphs). Ultimately, strong selection pressures gave way to relatively rapid the evolution of the carbonaria form in industrialised areas due to the advantages of its dark colour (predator avoidance etc). Methods and Results Assignment 1: Testing the Hardy-Weinberg Principle: Method Using PopGenLab, we are able to set up hypothetical experiments to observe the factors that influence the Hardy Weinberg equilibrium in a population. We can do this by manipulating different input parameters (genotype frequency, tree type, number of stands (groups of trees), stand size (number of trees within a group), migration rate, mating pattern and disaster frequency). For this assignment the input parameters are as follows: Number of stands = 1 All other input parameters are left at default values (equal allele frequencies; genotype frequencies of 50% brown, 25% white, 25% black; equal proportions of each tree type; stand size of 4000; no migration; random mating; disaster frequency set at Never. Results Q 1.1) When looking at the allele and genotype frequencies, there is a change in both over time. All populations behave differently to one another. This is because the only active evolutionary force is genetic drift. Fig. 4 shows that allele frequencies change Catherine Carrick 200884273 over time due to genetic drift, but as all the conditions of the Hardy Weinberg equilibrium are fixed the allele frequencies must equal 1 and so the variation in allele frequency of A becomes the negative of the frequency of a. (Fig. 4). Figure 4. Showing allele frequencies changing over time due to genetic drift. Blue line = Allele A, Red line = Allele a, Green line = average over all stands for allele A Q 1.2) When the initial allele frequencies are changed to A=80% (p), a = 20% (q) (p ² = 0.8 x 0.8 = 0.64); AA = 64% (equilibrium reached after one generation) (Fig 6). If all the Hardy Weinberg conditions are all fixed, the equilibrium will always be reduced in the next generation (Fig.5 and 6). Fig. 5. shows the initial genotype frequency compared with Fig. 6. which shows the genotype frequency after one generation. The actual genotype frequencies (worked out with average stand number) match the Hardy Weinberg predictions as they stay within 1% of the previous generations genotype frequency, across every generation thereafter. However, the percentage may change by 1% due to genetic drift. Figure 5. Display of the initial genotype frequency. Catherine Carrick 200884273 Figure 6. Shows the Hardy Weinberg equilibrium is reached after one generation where 0.64=64% homozygous AA individuals. Assignment 2: Genetic Drift Method Q 2.1) Firstly we ran an experiment with default values for all the Hardy Weinberg conditions and 100 populations. We then ran a series of experiments with 100 populations and default parameters for all conditions except tree stand size which was systematically reduced for each experiment. We recorded the effects on allele and genotype frequency (below). Fig. 7 shows that stand size 10 produced the largest fluctuations of allele frequencies, and displayed the most cases of allele fixing. Results Stand size = 4000 (carrying capacity) Allele frequency- the average remains constant for A and a Genotype frequency stays relatively constant throughout. Stand size = 2000 Allele frequency the average show slight variation Genotype frequency stays relatively constant. Stand size = 1000 Allele frequency the average starts to diverge more with each generation from F45 (generation 45) onwards showing a lot more variation than in larger stand sizes Genotype frequency the average frequency stays constant although there is some variation compared with larger stand sizes Catherine Carrick 200884273 Stand size = 500 Allele frequency The average shows variation in the later generations Genotype frequency the average stays relatively constant but still with more variation than in any other larger stand thus far Stand size = 250 Allele frequency the average shows some variation in the mid-generations, but this returns to a 50:50 frequency in the later generations Genotype frequency on average, the frequency of both white and black variations of moth increases and shows a large variation between stands. Heterozygosity the brown variation decreases by 9% over 100 generations Stand size = 100 Allele frequency the average shows more variation, but to the point where in some stands alleles within individual populations become fixed Genotype frequency the frequency of homozygotes increases. In some stands the homozygosity (black) becomes fixed, phasing out the other tow variations (white and brown) Heterozygosity drops by 22% Stand size = 50 Allele frequency frequencies become fixed for a single allele quickly (by F23) Genotype frequency Many stands become fixed for one variation within a few generations Heterozygosity drops by 33% after 100 generations Stand size = 10 Allele frequency becomes fixed within a population after two generations, and continues to become fixed in other populations. By F77, all are fixed Genotype frequency every single genotype becomes homozygous or extinct Heterozygosity by F77 all heterozygosity is lost and by F100 there are only homozygous populations, with the other (70%) becoming extinct There are many variations in allele and genotype frequency between different stands because as the stand number decreases, the chance of genetic drift increases. Figure 7 shows that at stand size 10, heterozygosity was lost completely by F77. Catherine Carrick 200884273 Figure 7. (stand size 10): this produced the largest fluctuations of allele frequencies, and displayed the most cases of allele fixing. (Blue = A, Red = a, Green = average) Q 2.2) As the stand size decreased, so did the heterozygosity. Populations began fixation in stand size 100 to stand size 50. As the stand size decreased, the number of fixed alleles increased. When the carrying capacity became too small, there was not enough variation to prevent fixation. Random mating account for the variation between fixed and non-fixed alleles in stand size 100 and stand size 50. Fig. 8. shows that with a stand size of 10, heterozygosity diminished completely by F77. Therefore, the smaller the population, the quicker heterozygosity is lost. Figure 8. Question 2:2 (stand size 10): This shows the heterozygosity diminished completely by F77. The green line (average) tends to diminishing heterozygosity. Catherine Carrick 200884273 Figure 9. Question 2:3 (stand size 10): Shows population of stand number 15 and how it fluctuates around the average value, it also shows that when the population dwindled to a certain point, it wasnt able to re-establish the numbers enough to prevent extinction. Q 2.3) Yes populations from stand size 10 became extinct (70% of them) therefore, as the carrying capacity decreases, the risk of extinction increases. There is variation within generations due to factors like predation or whether the offspring are male biased for example. There may be a lower population size in the next generation depending on mating strategies (random mating) and occasionally, the parameters reach a point of no return and the population can not recover and so becomes extinct. Others avoid extinction because the experiment is random. Fig. 9. (where stand size = 10) shows population of stand number 15 and how it fluctuates around the average value, it also shows that when the population dwindled to a certain point, it wasnt able to re-establish the numbers enough to prevent extinction. Assignment 3: The Influence of Mating Patterns on Population Genetics Method In this experiment we set all default parameters except for the number of tree stands which was set to 100. The first experiment was carried out with random mating, and the subsequent experiments with non-random mating. We then varied the population size as before, this time to compare the effects of assertive mating with genetic drift. Results Q 3.1) The effects of 25% assortative mating: Genotype frequency 25% assortative mating causes an increase in homozygotes, and heterozygosity is lost by F80 Allele frequency (produces a sigmoidal shaped graph). All become fixed for a single allele. Heterozygosity the average heterozygosity is lost at F80 Catherine Carrick 200884273 50% assortative mating: Genotype frequency all homozygotes with an almost 1:1 ratio aa being slightly more dominant Allele frequency (sigmoidal graph) all fixed by F50 Heterozygosity lost by F33 (average heterozygosity) 100% assortative mating Genotype frequency quickly becomes homozygote dominated Allele frequency All fixed fro a single allele by F15 Heterozygosity Average lost by F4 Heterozygosity is lost under assortative mating. This is because heterozygotes are at a reproductive disadvantage as homozygotes will mate with like genotypes. Heterozygotes will not be produced by these matings either. Q 3.2) Results Population size 2000 (stand size), 100% assortative mating: Genotype frequency all homozygous by F4 Allele f fixed by F14 Heterozygosity average lost by F4 Population size 2000, 50% assortative mating Genotype f all homozygous by F25 Allele f all fixed by F29 Heterozygosity average lost by F25 Population size 250, 100% assortative mating Genotype f all homozygous by F4 Allele f all fixed by F12 Heterozygosity lost at F4 Population size 250, 50% assortative mating Genotype f all homozygous by F25 Allele f all fixed by F28 Heterozygosity lost at F25 Assortative mating dominates control of allele frequencies and the speed that alleles become fixed within a population compared with the effects of genetic drift (because the homozygotes are all mating with the same genotype and not with heterozygotes). Assortative mating is not dependant on carrying capacity. The size of the population is irrelevant when assortative mating is occurring. The results are similar for a high or a low population size. Catherine Carrick 200884273 Q 3.3) Method We conducted a series of experiments using disassortative mating and selected different levels of mating between 0% (random mating) and 100% (only unlike phenotypes mate). We then changed the population size from 2000 to 250 to see the effects of disassortative mating on genetic drift. Results Dissasortative mating shows that AA and aa will mate which increases heterozygosity and stabilises the population as shown in the results below: Population size 2000, 100% disassortative mating Geno (genotype frequency) heterozygote is predominant Allele (allele frequency) none become fixed. There is variation but it stays within 31% 68% variation Hetero (heterozygosity) increases in the first generation then remains constant Pop size 2000, 50% disassortative mating Geno predominantly heterozygote Allele none become fixed. There is less variation than with 100% disassortative mating. Variation is between 43% and 57% Hetero Increases in 1st generation and remains constant Pop size 250, 100% disassortative mating Geno -slight heterozygote increase Allele No fixed alleles. There is much greater variation than seen previously with a larger population size, between 21% and 79% Hetero increases in 1st generation then remains steady and begins to decrease. Remains above the initial percentage Pop size 250, 50% disassortative mating Geno heterozygosity increases steadily Allele No fixed alleles. Variation is less than with 100% disassortative mating and population size of 250. Variation levels out between 33% and 67% Hetero increases in the 1st generation and remains constant with a few small fluctuations which level back out Q 3.4) There would be more heterozygosity in the next generation when disassortative mating occurs and if this kind of mating is maintained, the effects of genetic drift occur much slower because the populations are prevented from diverging. Fig. 10 shows the comparison between disassortative mating and random mating where random mating allows genetic drift. Drift can still occur during dissasortative mating when the carrying capacity is very low. Catherine Carrick 200884273 Figure 10. (picture on left): Random mating, pop size 250 showing genetic drift acting to diverge allele frequencies. (picture on right): 50% dissassortative mating, population size 250 shows that dissasortative mating acts to counter genetic drift. Q 3.5) Method For this experiment we varied the initial genotype frequency for assortative and disassortative mating. We tried experiments where the initial allele frequency favoured one or the other allele. Fig. 11 show starting frequencies of 50/50% assortative mating. A small deviation in starting frequencies affects the final fixation percentages (Fig. 11). We did not include the brown allele in this experiment as the extra variable is not needed. Figure 11) Shows starting frequencies of 50/50% (50%-white allele, 50% black allele) with assortative mating = 100%. Small deviation in starting freq effects final fixation percentages. Catherine Carrick 200884273 Results Under dissassortative mating the time taken for equilibrium to establish is negatively correlated with the degree of deviation from a 1:1 starting allele ratio. Under assortative mating, fixation or loss of alleles is negatively correlated with the degree of deviation from a 1:1 starting allele ratio. Assignment 4: Modes of Natural Selection Q 4.1) Method In this experiment we investigated how fitness affects changes in allele frequency in the population. We began with default parameters except tree stand number (set at 100) and genotype frequencies. We changed the tree frequency to set up several experiments under conditions of directional selection for dark moths, directional selection for light moths, balancing selection favouring the brown moth, and diversifying selection favouring the dark and light moths. We tried experiments with the different conditions of selection and initial allele frequencies near zero and one. Results Directional selection for black moths where they tree frequencies are 50% black, 25% white and 25% brown trees gave the following results: Allele frequency becomes fixed rapidly by F10 (on average by F9) Genotype frequencies at F10 genotype becomes fixed for black allele In a small population, alleles become fixed more quickly but in larger populations allele frequencies are not affected as much. We kept the population size high so we would not see genetic drift in the experiment (4000 carrying capacity) with tree frequencies of 35%, 32% and 33%. Even the small amount of selection (35% black trees) shows fixation of alleles for the black morph of moth (Fig. 12). Selection for light moths gives the same results as selection for black moths. Figure 12. shows allele becoming fixed rapidly, due to a tiny increase in black trees on left, white trees on right (35 %) Catherine Carrick 200884273 Q 4.2) Starting figures are as follows: Black tree 25% Allele black 25% Brown tree 50% Allele brown 50% White tree 25% Allele white 25% After one generation, allele frequency remains stable (between 48% and 52%) and the genotype frequency becomes predominantly brown. This is because there is always the presence of black and white genotypes which cause slight variation. If you change the selection of trees to black 10%, white 10%, brown 80%, almost identical results occur (between 49% and 51% variation in allele frequency = stabilized). Q 4.3) To show diversifying selection we set the tree types to 45% black, 45% white and 10% brown. Genotype frequency by the 1st generation, there was a large decrease in brown morphs of moth and the equivalent increase in black and white morphs. This continues till F5 when the black morph became slightly more dominant (on average) due to random mating. The brown morph was phased out by F18 (on average) on most of the 100 tree stands. All alleles become fixed for either black or white by F23 (49% white, 51% black) (Fig 13). Figure 13. Shows 50% black and 50% white showing a 1:1 ratio Q 4.4) Small differences in fitness are effective in changing allele frequencies. Small differences in fitness have proportionally slower rates of allele frequency change compared with large differences in fitness. We conducted additional experiments with varying proportions of tree types. The results are as follows: (Where stand size = 4000, number of stands = 100, allele frequencies = white 20%, brown 60%, black 20%, tree frequencies = white 32%, brown 32%, black 36%). Even though there are a lower proportion of black alleles (A) to begin with, those alleles will have a higher fitness than white or brown as there is a higher percentage of black tree types. Over time this will equate to an increase in black morphs. There is, however, a Catherine Carrick 200884273 point where even if the black allele is fittest but there isnt a high enough population in the first place, it will crash and not recover. Q 4.5) Genetic variation is maintained under balancing selection because the allele frequencies remain stable. There is no fixation (presuming the all mating is random). The heterozygote allele is favoured and thus balances the homozygous allele. Assignment 5: Migration Q 5.1) Migration counteracts the effects of genetic drift. (Fig 14 and 15) Figure 14. Stand size of 500 and no migration shows heterozygosity varying over all populations. Green line = average heterozygosity over all populations. Figure 15. Shows stand size 500, and 8% migration. Shows migration maintains heterozygosity and there is less deviation from the average (green line) Catherine Carrick 200884273 Assignment 6: Population Bottlenecks Q 6.1) Disaster led to the loss of alleles and reduced heterozygosity. The more disasters there where, the more decreased the diversity became. (Fig 16, 17, 18) Figure 16. Control condition Shows low drift conferred by high population sizes (4000), all other variables adjusted to give Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Figure 17. Disaster parameters set to sometimes as opposed to never. Individual populations prone to fixation and loss of alleles. Catherine Carrick 200884273 Figure 18. Disaster frequency set to often rather than sometimes. Loss of diversity occurs faster than in figure 13 with most populations losing one or the other allele by generation 80. Q 6.2) Disaster increased the rate of extinction. The more regular the disaster, the more extinctions. Q 6.3) Migration moderated the effect that disasters had on the population. Discussion The results of our experiments clearly show that genetic drift effects smaller populations where heterozygoisity is lost rapidly and as the carrying capacity decreases, the risk of extinction increases. The is because the proportion of individuals with a certain phenotype within a small population are largely influenced by random variation in survival, and over time, the change in proportion of genotypes in subsequent generations leads to genetic drift. If one was to aim to conserve a hypothetical species, one would expect that because it is endangered, it would be a small population. To maintain genetic diversity among this species, one would need a large enough breeding population to begin with. Unfortunately, as is the case with most endangered species, populations become geographically isolated, mainly due to human disruption of habitat. Migration between breeding populations decreases and they become fragmented. Conservation efforts may be due to natural disasters such as tsunam is, fires etc, but are mainly to prevent the constant onslaught of human activities such as illegal logging in conservation areas. Figure 17 illustrates the effects of a bottleneck following a disaster, showing reduced variability (and a small population) leading to loss and/or fixation of alleles. As with genetic drift, the way to prevent population crashes, or rather soften the effects of bottlenecks, is to encourage migration among populations. This can be achieved by implementing the protection of corridors between known endangered populations. In theory, the populations can migrate between areas, maintaining a high enough level of breeding and genetic variation, to counter the effects of inbreeding depression or genetic drift (Fig 14 and 15). An example of how corridors may re-connect fragmented populations can be seen in Bhutans Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park (www.panthera.org). Catherine Carrick 200884273 Figure 19. Map of known tiger populations (red) and proposed tiger corridors (orange). Data taken from www.panthera.org The proposed Eastern Himalayan corridor may help towards connecting isolated populations of tigers, and thus increasing genetic diversity (if these populations successfully reproduce with one another) (Fig 19). Random mating, as apposed to assortative mating, will increase heterozygosity and stabilise a population (Fig 10). This acts against genetic drift and stops the population form diverging as quickly. In a hypothetical situation then, you would preferably allow mating to occur naturally and at random. However, some conservation efforts include that of translocation of individuals or cross breeding certain individuals from separate populations. For this to be advantageous to the species, one must consider maintaining genetic diversity by genotyping the individuals before translocation. It would be senseless to swap or breed an AA individual with another AA individual from a separate population as this would lead to loss or fixation and not increase diversity. Our studies with B. betularia in question 4 to 4.5 show that intermediates are favoured over extreme phenotypes and that genetic variation is maintained under balancing (stabilizing) selection because the allele frequencies remain stable. There is no fixation (presuming the all mating is random). The heterozygote allele is favoured and thus balances the homozygous allele. As well as considering the genetic diversity of a species and its genealogy, one must understand the species by means of observations in the field including its behaviour. Later studies of B. betularia reinforced the need for such observations as it was found to rest high in the branches rather than on the trunks of trees as previously calculated. Also, modern science allowed for the study of its UV qualities which had otherwise been unaccounted for when considering levels of predation by birds. A close study of mating patterns should ideally be assessed to ensure the outcome of migration; corridors, translocation etc will be advantageous in terms of fitness. Catherine Carrick 200884273

Chemical Engineer :: essays research papers

Chemical Engineer The chemical engineer is an invaluable link between scientific principles and manufacturing realities. It involves the use of chemical, physical, and engineering principles. The scientist in a laboratory does basic research to develop new compounds and processes. When the scientist discovers a product that may be useful, the chemical engineer takes over. They adapt the product for big scale manufacturing. They do this by designing a plant to produce the item on large scale. Thus the engineer is the link between the laboratory and commercial production. The chemical engineer’s earnings depend on several factors. Their educational background dictates much of what the engineer will earn. Also, experience and the location of the employer will make a very big difference. The starting salary for a chemical engineer with a Bachelor’s Degree can range from $30,000 to over 35,000 per year. An engineer with a Master’s Degree can earn anywhere from $35,000 to over $40,000. A chemical engineer with a doctorate can earn $45,000 to well over $60,000. "To be successful in chemical engineering, one must be curious and persevering" (Finney IV 13). The person must be flexible in order to adapt to each phase encountered. They must also be ambitious. Honesty is another very important trait. They must be cooperative since they are a member of a team. In order to get a job as a chemical engineer, a person should have at least a Bachelor’s Degree. The degree should be in chemical engineering. The degree is acquired by four years of study. Subjects studied include engineering, drawing, chemistry, mathematics, English and speech, computing, economics, and social studies. The actual specialization in chemical engineering is usually in the third year of study. There are many advantages that go along with this job. The career offers challenges in both science and industry. Also, the work allows for other companies to expand and hire more people. Thus, this creates new jobs. There are also disadvantages. First, there is a great responsibility placed onto the engineer. Also, there is a great deal of pressure involved with this kind of work. The future for the chemical engineer looks very promising. As new drugs and vaccines develop, the chemical engineer will be needed. This a new and exciting field to work in. Many people are becoming more and more interested in it. This increase in engineers called for and increase in jobs. Someone interested in becoming a chemical engineer should concentrate on the sciences in high school. They should be "good" at chemistry and physics. Chemical Engineer :: essays research papers Chemical Engineer The chemical engineer is an invaluable link between scientific principles and manufacturing realities. It involves the use of chemical, physical, and engineering principles. The scientist in a laboratory does basic research to develop new compounds and processes. When the scientist discovers a product that may be useful, the chemical engineer takes over. They adapt the product for big scale manufacturing. They do this by designing a plant to produce the item on large scale. Thus the engineer is the link between the laboratory and commercial production. The chemical engineer’s earnings depend on several factors. Their educational background dictates much of what the engineer will earn. Also, experience and the location of the employer will make a very big difference. The starting salary for a chemical engineer with a Bachelor’s Degree can range from $30,000 to over 35,000 per year. An engineer with a Master’s Degree can earn anywhere from $35,000 to over $40,000. A chemical engineer with a doctorate can earn $45,000 to well over $60,000. "To be successful in chemical engineering, one must be curious and persevering" (Finney IV 13). The person must be flexible in order to adapt to each phase encountered. They must also be ambitious. Honesty is another very important trait. They must be cooperative since they are a member of a team. In order to get a job as a chemical engineer, a person should have at least a Bachelor’s Degree. The degree should be in chemical engineering. The degree is acquired by four years of study. Subjects studied include engineering, drawing, chemistry, mathematics, English and speech, computing, economics, and social studies. The actual specialization in chemical engineering is usually in the third year of study. There are many advantages that go along with this job. The career offers challenges in both science and industry. Also, the work allows for other companies to expand and hire more people. Thus, this creates new jobs. There are also disadvantages. First, there is a great responsibility placed onto the engineer. Also, there is a great deal of pressure involved with this kind of work. The future for the chemical engineer looks very promising. As new drugs and vaccines develop, the chemical engineer will be needed. This a new and exciting field to work in. Many people are becoming more and more interested in it. This increase in engineers called for and increase in jobs. Someone interested in becoming a chemical engineer should concentrate on the sciences in high school. They should be "good" at chemistry and physics.